In particular, liposoluble scavengers in cellular membranes have high diffusion rates, enabling them to abolish the radical chain reactions by immediately converting them into more stable and less reactive molecules ( 4 General overview of thyroid diseases Thyroid hormones have a considerable impact on the cellular oxidative stress processes which is ascribed to their role in cellular metabolism and oxygen consumption ( Thyroid hormones exhibit profound metabolic effects characterized by an increased rate of both catabolic and anabolic reactions, resulting in an overall acceleration of the basal metabolism which is associated with increased oxygen consumption, respiratory rate, energy expenditure, and heat production ( Hypothyroidism is associated with an increased risk of atherosclerosis due to its metabolic effects ( In thyroid diseases, metabolic disorders associated with low-grade inflammation can also lead to an increased oxidative stress ( Thyroid diseases are considered the most commonly reported endocrine diseases in clinical practice, followed by lipid and carbohydrate disorders ( Figure 1 .)
Programming refers to how early life experiences, including prenatal and early postnatal nutrition, can have long-lasting effects on metabolism, body composition, and health outcomes later in life (Oben et al., 2010
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4 Mechanism of acupuncture on TBI No single theory comprehensively elucidates the pathogenesis of secondary injuries in TBI owing to its involvement in a complex cascade of reactions (Jassam et al., 2017)
