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A sizable literature of peer-reviewed academic studies supports these observations.[9] A 2017 study published in Public Finance Review provides the academic theory and estimates for how tax rates affect smuggling, highlighting that easily transportable goods (e.g., cigarettes) will be attractive cross-border shopping items.[10] A 2018 study published in the same journal supported those findings by examining littered packs of cigarettes across 132 communities in 38 states, finding that 21 percent of packs did not have proper local stamps.[11] Smuggling comes in different forms

Given that smokers are generally undeterred by price increases due to their addiction, this strategy is expected to remain effective for companies operating in the tobacco sector

[] Each study performed by the Mackinac Center contains a statistical model that attempts to isolate the degree to which tax evasion and avoidance (what we call "smuggling") occurs in the United States and from Mexico or to Canada

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